What is nutrition, and why does it matter?
Nutrition is the study of nutrients in food, how the body uses them, and the relationship between diet, health, and disease.
Nutritionists use ideas from molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics to understand how nutrients affect the human body.
Nutrition also focuses on how people can use dietary choices to reduce the risk of disease, what happens if a person has too much or too little of a nutrient, and how allergies work.
Nutrients provide nourishment. Proteins, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water are all nutrients. If people do not have the right balance of nutrients in their diet, their risk of developing certain health conditions increases.
This article will explain the different nutrients a person needs and why. It will also look at the role of the dietitian and the nutritionist.
Macronutrients are nutrients that people need in relatively large quantities.
Carbohydrates
Sugar, starch, and fiber are types of carbohydrates.
Sugars are simple carbs. The body quickly breaks down and absorbs sugars and processed starch. They can provide rapid energy, but they do not leave a person feeling full. They can also cause a spike in blood sugar levels. Frequent sugar spikes increase the risk of type 2 diabetes and its complications.
Fiber is also a carbohydrate. The body breaks down some types of fiber and uses them for energy; others are metabolized by gut bacteria, while other types pass through the body.
Fiber and unprocessed starch are complex carbs. It takes the body some time to break down and absorb complex carbs. After eating fiber, a person will feel full for longer. Fiber may also reduce the risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and colorectal cancer. Complex carbs are a more healthful choice than sugars and refined carbs.
Proteins
Proteins consist of amino acids, which are organic compounds that occur naturally.
There are 20 amino acids. Some of these are
Some foods provide complete protein, which means they contain all the essential amino acids the body needs. Other foods contain various combinations of amino acids.
Most plant-based foods do not contain complete protein, so a person who follows a vegan diet needs to eat a range of foods throughout the day that provides the essential amino acids.
Fats
Fats are essential for:
- lubricating joints
- helping organs produce hormones
- enabling the body to absorb certain vitamins
- reducing inflammation
- preserving brain health
Too much fat can lead to obesity, high cholesterol, liver disease, and other health problems.
However, the type of fat a person eats makes a difference. Unsaturated fats, such as olive oil, are more healthful than saturated fats, which tend to come from animals.
Water
The adult human body is up to 60% water, and it needs water for many processes. Water contains no calories, and it does not provide energy.
Many people recommend consuming 2 liters, or 8 glasses, of water a day, but it can also come from dietary sources, such as fruit and vegetables. Adequate hydration will result in pale yellow urine.
Requirements will also depend on an individual’s body size and age, environmental factors, activity levels, health status, and so on.
Micronutrients are essential in small amounts. They include vitamins and minerals. Manufacturers sometimes add these to foods. Examples include fortified cereals and rice.
Minerals
The body needs carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
It also needs dietary minerals, such as iron, potassium, and so on.
In most cases, a varied and balanced diet will provide the minerals a person needs. If a deficiency occurs, a doctor may recommend supplements.
Here are some of the minerals the body needs to function well.
Potassium
Potassium is an electrolyte. It enables the kidneys, the heart, the muscles, and the nerves to work properly. The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that adults consume
Too little can lead to high blood pressure, stroke, and kidney stones.
Too much may be harmful to people with kidney disease.
Avocados, coconut water, bananas, dried fruit, squash, beans, and lentils are good sources.
Sodium
Sodium is an electrolyte that helps:
- maintain nerve and muscle function
- regulate fluid levels in the body
Too little can lead to hyponatremia. Symptoms include lethargy, confusion, and fatigue.
Too much can lead to high blood pressure, which increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke.
Table salt, which is made up of sodium and chloride, is a popular condiment. However, most people consume too much sodium, as it already occurs naturally in most foods.
Experts urge people not to add table salt to their diet. Current guidelines recommend consuming no more than 2,300 mg of sodium a day, or around one teaspoon.
This recommendation includes both naturally-occurring sources, as well as salt a person adds to their food. People with high blood pressure or kidney disease should eat less.
Calcium
The body
Too little can cause bones and teeth to weaken. Symptoms of a severe deficiency include tingling in the fingers and changes in heart rhythm, which can be life-threatening.
Too much can lead to constipation, kidney stones, and reduced absorption of other minerals.
Current guidelines for adults recommend consuming 1,000 mg a day, and 1,200 mg for women aged 51 and over.
Good sources include dairy products, tofu, legumes, and green, leafy vegetables.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is present in all body cells and
Too little phosphorus can lead to bone diseases, affect appetite, muscle strength, and coordination. It can also result in anemia, a higher risk of infection, burning or prickling sensations in the skin, and confusion.
Too much in the diet is unlikely to cause health problems though toxicity is possible from supplements, medications, and phosphorus metabolism problems.
Adults should aim to consume around
Magnesium
Magnesium
Too little magnesium can eventually lead to weakness, nausea, tiredness, restless legs, sleep conditions, and other symptoms.
Too much can result in digestive and, eventually, heart problems.
Nuts, spinach, and beans are good sources of magnesium. Adult females need
Zinc
Zinc plays a role in the health of body cells, the immune system, wound healing, and the creation of proteins.
Too little can lead to hair loss, skin sores, changes in taste or smell, and diarrhea, but this is rare.
Too much can lead to digestive problems and headaches.
Adult females need
Iron
Iron is
Too little can result in anemia, including digestive issues, weakness, and difficulty thinking. Learn more here about iron deficiency.
Too much can lead to digestive problems, and very high levels can be fatal.
Good sources include fortified cereals, beef liver, lentils, spinach, and tofu. Adults need
Manganese
The body uses manganese to
Too little can result in weak bones in children, skin rashes in men, and mood changes in women.
Too much can lead to tremors, muscle spasms, and other symptoms, but only with very high amounts.
Mussels, hazelnuts, brown rice, chickpeas, and spinach all provide manganese. Male adults need
Copper
Copper
Too little copper can lead to tiredness, patches of light skin, high cholesterol, and connective tissue disorders. This is rare.
Too much copper can result in liver damage, abdominal pain, nausea, and diarrhea. Too much copper also reduces the absorption of zinc.
Good sources include beef liver, oysters, potatoes, mushrooms, sesame seeds, and sunflower seeds. Adults need
Selenium
Selenium is made up of over 24 selenoproteins, and it plays a
Too much selenium can cause garlic breath, diarrhea, irritability, skin rashes, brittle hair or nails, and other symptoms.
Too little can result in heart disease, infertility in men, and arthritis.
Adults need
Brazil nuts are an excellent source of selenium. Other plant sources include spinach, oatmeal, and baked beans. Tuna, ham, and enriched macaroni are all excellent sources.
Vitamins
People need small amounts of various vitamins. Some of these, such as vitamin C, are also antioxidants. This means they help protect cells from damage by removing toxic molecules, known as free radicals, from the body.
Vitamins can be:
Water-soluble: The eight B vitamins and vitamin C
Fat-soluble: Vitamins A, D, E, and K
Water soluble vitamins
People need to consume water-soluble vitamins regularly because the body removes them more quickly, and it cannot store them easily.
| Vitamin | Effect of too little | Effect of too much | Sources |
| B-1 ( | Beriberi Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome | Unclear, as the body excretes it in the urine. | Fortified cereals and rice, pork, trout, black beans |
| B-2 ( | Hormonal problems, skin disorders, swelling in the mouth and throat | Unclear, as the body excretes it in the urine. | Beef liver, breakfast cereal, oats, yogurt, mushrooms, almonds |
| B-3 ( | Pellagra, including skin changes, red tongue, digestive and neurological symptoms | Facial flushing, burning, itching, headaches, rashes, and dizziness | Beef liver, chicken breast, brown rice, fortified cereals, peanuts. |
| B-5 ( | Numbness and burning in hands and feet, fatigue, stomach pain | Digestive problems at high doses. | Breakfast cereal, beef liver, shiitake mushroom, sunflower seeds |
| B-6 ( | Anemia, itchy rash, skin changes, swollen tongue | Nerve damage, loss of muscle control | Chickpeas, beef liver, tuna, chicken breast, fortified cereals, potatoes |
| B-7 ( | Hair loss, rashes around the eyes and other body openings, conjunctivitis | Unclear | Beef liver, egg, salmon, sunflower seeds, sweet potato |
| B-9 ( | Weakness, fatigue, difficulty focusing, heart palpitations, shortness of breath | May increase cancer risk | Beef liver, spinach, black-eyed peas, fortified cereal, asparagus |
| B-12 ( | Anemia, fatigue, constipation, weight loss, neurological changes | No adverse effects reported | Clams, beef liver, fortified yeasts, plant milks, and breakfast cereals, some oily fish. |
| Vitamin C ( | Scurvy, including fatigue, skin rash, gum inflammation, poor wound healing | Nausea, diarrhea, stomach cramps | Citrus fruits, berries, red and green peppers, kiwi fruit, broccoli, baked potatoes, fortified juices. |
Fat-soluble vitamins
The body absorbs fat-soluble vitamins through the intestines with the help of fats (lipids). The body can store them and does not remove them quickly. People who follow a low-fat diet may not be able to absorb enough of these vitamins. If too many build up, problems can arise.
| Vitamin | Effect of too little | Effect of too much | Sources |
| Vitamin A ( | Night blindness | Pressure on the brain, nausea, dizziness, skin irritation, joint and bone pain, orange pigmented skin color | Sweet potato, beef liver, spinach, and other dark leafy greens, carrots, winter squash |
| Poor bone formation and weak bones | Anorexia, weight loss, changes in heart rhythm, damage to cardiovascular system and kidneys | Sunlight exposure plus dietary sources: cod liver oil, oily fish, dairy products, fortified juices | |
| Peripheral neuropathy, retinopathy, reduced immune response | May reduce the ability of blood to clot | Wheat germ, nuts, seeds, sunflower and safflower oil, spinach | |
| Bleeding and hemorrhaging in severe cases | No adverse effects but it may interact with blood thinners and other drugs | Leafy, green vegetables, soybeans, edamame, okra, natto |
Multivitamins are available for purchase in stores or online, but people should speak to their doctor before taking any supplements, to check that they are suitable for them to use.
Antioxidants
Some nutrients also act as antioxidants. These may be vitamins, minerals, proteins, or other types of molecules. They help the body remove toxic substances known as free radicals, or reactive oxygen species. If too many of these substances remain in the body, cell damage and disease can result.
A registered dietitian nutritionist (RD or RDN) studies food, nutrition, and dietetics. To become a registered dietitian, a person needs to attend an accredited university, follow an approved curriculum, complete a rigorous internship, pass a licensure exam, and complete 75 or more continuing education hours every 5 years. Dietitians work in private and public healthcare, education, corporate wellness, research, and the food industry.
A nutritionist learns about nutrition through self-study or formal education, but they do not meet the requirements to use the titles RD or RDN. Nutritionists often work in the food industry and in food science and technology.
Nutrition is the study of food and how it affects the body. People need to consume a varied diet to obtain a wide range of nutrients.
Some people choose to follow a specific diet, in which they focus on certain foods and avoid others. People who do this may need to plan carefully to ensure they obtain all the necessary vitamins to maintain their health.
A diet that is rich in plant-based foods and that limits added animal fats, processed foods, and added sugar and salt is most likely to benefit a person’s health.
What is oxalic acid (oxalate), and is it dangerous?
Many fruits, vegetables, nuts, and whole grains contain a naturally occurring compound called oxalic acid, which people sometimes refer to as oxalate. Although small amounts of oxalic acid are not harmful, this compound can inhibit the absorption of other important nutrients.
For this reason, some people refer to oxalic acid as an anti-nutrient. In some people, it can also
Certain gut bacteria can metabolize, or break down, oxalic acid. This prevents it from binding to minerals and affecting nutrient absorption.
This article looks at oxalic acid and its associated risks in more detail. It also lists dietary sources of the compound and explains how people can decrease their intake.
Oxalic acid is a common organic compound. A range of living organisms — including fungi, bacteria, plants, animals, and humans — produce it.
Technically, oxalate occurs when the oxalic acid in plants binds to minerals. However, many people use the terms interchangeably.
The body can either produce oxalate as a waste product or obtain it from the diet.
Oxalate can combine with other minerals in the body to form compounds such as calcium oxalate and iron oxalate. People can then
However, some individuals with high oxalate levels
Although oxalic acid naturally occurs in plants and humans, it also has a variety of uses in industry. These uses include:
- removing rust
- removing stains
- stripping and cleaning
- removing wax
- cleaning wood
- dyeing textiles
Laboratories may also use oxalic acid and oxalate salts as anticoagulants in blood specimens.
In small amounts, oxalate is harmless. However, higher levels may reduce the body’s mineral absorption and contribute to kidney stone formation.
Nutrient absorption
People refer to oxalates as anti-nutrients. This is because they bind to certain minerals and prevent the body from absorbing and utilizing them.
One good example is spinach. Although it is rich in the important nutrients calcium and magnesium, it is also high in oxalate. The oxalate
Kidney stones
The other concern with oxalate is that it can contribute to kidney stones.
Most people have a small amount of oxalate and calcium in the urinary tract at some point. Usually, they remain dissolved, and there are no associated problems.
However, in some people, the compounds form crystals and then kidney stones.
There are several types of kidney stones, which comprise different minerals, but calcium oxalate is the most common. Therefore, if a person is prone to developing kidney stones, their doctor may advise them to reduce their intake of oxalate-rich foods. They should also consume enough calcium and avoid vitamin C supplements.
Certain bacteria in the digestive system can metabolize some dietary oxalate before it binds to minerals. This process can prevent oxalate’s potentially harmful effects.
A type of gut bacteria called Oxalobacter formigenes breaks down oxalate and uses it as energy. Having this bacteria in the gut microbiome significantly reduces the amount of oxalate in a person’s body.
Many people have O. formigenes in their gut. According to research, it is present in the feces of about 60–80% of adults.
Some people who experience recurrent calcium oxalate kidney stones have less of this bacteria.
Certain factors, such as taking antibiotics, can reduce the number of good bacteria in the gut. Additionally, people with altered gut function, such as those with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), have an
People typically consume oxalate through
Vegetables that are particularly high in oxalate include:
- spinach
- kale
- swiss chard
- sweet potatoes
- rhubarb
- beets
- potato skins
Other dietary sources rich in oxalate include:
- black tea
- soy
- cocoa
- nuts, such as almonds, Brazil nuts, and pine nuts
The amount the body can absorb from foods depends on the quantity of soluble oxalates the foods contain and the bioavailability of these oxalates. For example, tea has a significantly higher rate of oxalate absorption than spinach or rhubarb.
The method of food preparation and cooking can also affect the oxalate content. Soaking certain vegetables and legumes
The best way to avoid oxalate is to reduce the intake of oxalate-rich foods.
It is important to eat a variety of fruits and vegetables. However, if a person is concerned about the number of oxalates in certain foods, they can replace them with low oxalate alternatives. Some examples include:
| High oxalate food | Low oxalate alternative |
|---|---|
| kale | broccoli |
| spinach | asparagus |
| potatoes | cauliflower |
| rhubarb | apples |
| beets | cherries |
| black tea | fruit tea |
| dark chocolate | white chocolate |
Boiling vegetables also reduces their oxalate content. Research shows that boiling could remove
It is also important to eat enough dietary calcium. This mineral can bind to oxalate in the digestive system and reduce how much the body absorbs. Therefore, eating milk, yogurt, or cheese alongside foods containing oxalates can reduce the likelihood of developing issues such as kidney stones.
Oxalate is a compound present in many plant-based foods, including spinach, chard, and kale.
In the digestive system, oxalate can form complexes with minerals such as calcium and interfere with their absorption. Additionally, a high oxalate diet may lead to some people developing kidney stones.
Doctors may advise some individuals to consume a low oxalate diet. They can do this by replacing high oxalate foods with low oxalate alternatives, boiling vegetables, and eating foods rich in calcium alongside high oxalate foods.
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